In ancient times, incense varieties were numerous, and the exchange of incense between scholars and officials extended widely to Yaizhou and various nations in Hainan. However, before the Qin and Han dynasties, only fragrant plants such as orchids, pepper, and cinnamon were mentioned. It was not until Emperor Wu of Han, known for his extravagant tastes, that incense was formally introduced. A minister presented "chicken tongue incense" to the court, and foreign countries began offering various exotic incense varieties. During the Jin Dynasty, foreign nations continued to contribute rare incense. By the time of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, vast amounts of aloeswood (agarwood) and "Jiajian" incense were burned during the New Year's Eve celebrations. By then, all varieties of Hainanese incense had already been introduced. During the Tang Dynasty, Emperor Xuanzong and his officials widely used aloeswood, sandalwood, borneol, and musk in their pavilions and halls. Later, during the Later Zhou Dynasty under Emperor Xiande, the Kingdom of Kunming presented rosewater, something never seen before but eventually made available.

Incense comes from various sources: some from grass, others from trees; some from flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, bark, or resin. Some are prepared through human intervention, blended and refined. Some are burned, some worn, and others used medicinally. Below is a detailed classification:

Agarwood (aloeswood) is classified into nineteen types. The wood's core and knots are dense, causing it to sink in water, hence the name "Shenshui" (sinking water). It is also called Shuichen (water-sunk). Half-sinking varieties are called Zhanxiang (semi-sinking incense), while non-sinking varieties are called Huangshuxiang (yellow mature incense). According to the "Nan Yue Zhi," the people of Jiaozhou refer to it as "honey incense" because of its honey-like aroma. In Sanskrit texts, it is known as Aguru. The classification includes fully formed agarwood, naturally exuded resin forming a solid mass; living agarwood, resinous deposits formed within the tree; fallen agarwood, resin accumulation from decayed trees; insect-bored agarwood, resin forming around insect-infested cavities. Among these, living agarwood is the highest quality, followed by fallen agarwood. The best agarwood is dense and black, while yellowish varieties are inferior.

Agarwood from island regions often appears in the shapes of pestles, elbows, fists, phoenixes, birds, turtles, snakes, and clouds, gaining names based on their shapes. Some float partially in water and are referred to as Zhanxiang (semi-sinking agarwood).

Top-grade agarwood origins include Cambodia (Zhenla), which produces the best quality, Champa (Vietnam) following, and Brunei (Boni) producing lower-quality incense. Even within Zhenla, three grades exist: Lüyang, the best; Sanbo, medium quality; Bolaojian, the lowest. Agarwood often takes unique forms, resembling rhinoceros horns, swallows' beaks, tubers, or spindles, leading to various descriptive names. However, the primary factor in quality assessment is its origin and scent, not its shape.

Notable historical uses include Sui Emperor Yang's Fire Mountain Festival, where the emperor burned vast quantities of agarwood, and the fragrance spread for miles; Tang Emperor Taizong's inquiry, where the ruler of Gaozhou, Feng Ang, explained that only decayed agarwood emits fragrance; Dragon Hall incense pillars, where during the Five Dynasties period, the warlord Ma Xifan built a grand hall using agarwood pillars shaped like dragons; an agarwood pavilion gift to Emperor Xuanzong, where a merchant presented an entire pavilion made of agarwood, considered a great luxury; and an agarwood incense mountain, where a Persian merchant stacked a thousand catties of agarwood into a mountain shape, refusing a gold price equivalent to five hundred taels.

Types and regional varieties include Yellow Mature Incense (light, porous, and of lower quality, often mistaken for "Fast Incense"), Zhanxiang (slightly resinous wood, used for burning), Chicken Bone Incense (named for its hollow interior, resembling bird bones), Penglai Incense (derived from partially resinous wood, found in Hainan), Dragon Scale Incense (thin flakes of aged agarwood), and Marble Leaf Incense (resembles bamboo leaves).

The best agarwood is found in Hainan, specifically from the Wan'an Mountain region, where it is valued on par with silver. The ideal incense should be clear and delicate, akin to the fragrance of lotus flowers and plum blossoms.

Agarwood was historically used in imperial sacrifices, as recorded under Emperor Liang Wu; elite architecture, as with Tang Zongchuke's walls made using powdered agarwood; luxury items such as fine combs, inkstones, and sculptures; perfumed clothing, with Empress Chen wearing agarwood-infused shoes; and religious offerings, as mentioned in Beihu Lu, where agarwood statues of Guanyin arrived in China from the sea.

Despite its prestige, some southern incense was artificially cultivated, unlike the wild-grown agarwood of Hainan.

Agarwood remains one of the most valued and mysterious incenses in Chinese history, with variations in quality based on its region of origin, natural formation process, and intended use. The finest varieties continue to be sought after for their unmatched fragrance and sacred significance.

Jiangzhen Incense
Jiangzhen incense is also called Purple Vine Incense or Chicken Bone Incense. It is similar to agarwood and was named because some pieces resemble chicken bones. It is commonly believed that imported varieties are called "Foreign Jiangzhen." It grows in the mountains of the South China Sea and in the distant Qin country. Its fragrance is similar to that of Su Fang wood. When burned, it does not initially emit a strong aroma, but when blended with other incenses, it becomes exceptional. In medicine, the best type is the foreign Jiangzhen variety, which is purple and moist. It is found in Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Annam, Hanzhong, Shizhou, Yongshun, Baojing, as well as in Champa, Siam, Brunei, and Ryukyu.

Jiangzhen incense grows inside timber, and extracting it requires considerable effort in cutting and chiseling. It forms in the heartwood of the tree, while the outer white bark is thick, sometimes eight or nine inches, sometimes five or six inches. When burned, its fragrance is strong and far-reaching.

Chicken Bone Incense is actually Jiangzhen incense. It originally came from Hainan, but modern varieties found in remote mountain caves resemble it but are not the same. They are thin and tough, lacking a strong fragrance.

This incense is believed to be effective for preventing epidemics, purifying homes from strange occurrences, and has been verified through practice. When burned with other incenses, its smoke rises straight up, which is said to attract cranes. It is particularly valued in Daoist ceremonies for invoking celestial deities. Children wearing it as an amulet are believed to be protected from evil spirits.

The best Jiangzhen incense comes from the country of Sanfoqi (Srivijaya). Its aroma is strong and long-lasting, capable of warding off evil. In Quanzhou, every household, regardless of wealth, burns it yearly like firewood. Although it is found in many places, none compare to that from Sanfoqi. Today, there are distinctions between foreign Jiangzhen, Guangxi Jiangzhen, and native Jiangzhen.


Tribute of Jiangzhen Incense
Nanwuli is a place located west of Sumatra, reachable in a day and night by the west wind. In the early years of the Hongwu reign, Jiangzhen incense was presented as tribute.


Honey Incense
Honey incense is also called Rice Incense, Mo Incense, Wood Honey, A Incense, and Multi-Fragrance Incense. The bark of this tree can be used to make paper.

Wood Honey Incense produces a honey-like fragrance. The tree resembles the locust tree, and it takes five to six years after cutting before its fragrance can be harvested.

It is also known as the Thousand-Year Tree. Its roots are large, and it takes four to five years after cutting to extract its incense. The heartwood that does not decay is used for incense.

Mo Incense trees are found in Persia and the lands of Fulim. The locals call it the A tree. It grows several zhang (tens of feet) tall, with bark that is greenish-white. Its leaves resemble the locust tree but are longer, its flowers are similar to orange blossoms but larger, and its fruits are black, about the size of Cornelian cherries, and taste sweet and sour.

In Zhaoqing’s Xinxing County, a tree called Multi-Fragrance Wood, commonly known as Honey Incense, is believed to ward off evil spirits and dispel ghosts.

Its leaves resemble those of the Zhuang tree. It takes a thousand years to grow, and after being cut down, it takes four to five years to check if the wood has decayed. Only the middle section that remains solid is suitable for making incense.

Honey Incense grows in the mountains and valleys of Yongchang. Today, it is only imported to Guangzhou via maritime trade, and no other regions produce it.

In Jiaozhou, Honey Incense grows on large trees, with knots resembling those of agarwood.

Foreign Honey Incense is imported by sea. Its leaves resemble yam vines, its roots are large, and its flowers are purple. It has many medicinal properties. The best type is hard like chicken bone, and when bitten, it sticks to the teeth. There is another type called "Ma Ling Root," known as Green Wood Incense, but it is different. Some claim there are two varieties, but this is doubtful. Another variant is called "Yunnan Root."

According to earlier incense records, Jiaozhou locals referred to agarwood as Honey Incense. The "Jiaozhou Gazetteer" states that Honey Incense resembles agarwood in both fragrance and appearance, similar to how southern and northern oranges and trifoliate oranges differ. The various theories are inconsistent, so further verification is needed. Some records claim Honey Incense grows in the mountains of the South China Sea and can be cultivated in five to six years. This resembles the way people in Guangzhou cultivate incense trees for profit. The yellow mature incense and raw incense commonly used today are different from this variety.


Honey Incense Paper
In the fifth year of the Taikang era of the Jin Dynasty, the Great Qin (Roman Empire or the Middle East) presented 30,000 sheets of honey incense paper. The emperor bestowed 10,000 sheets to Du Yu, instructing him to use them for writing the "Spring and Autumn Annals." The paper was made from the bark and leaves of the honey incense tree. It was light brown and had natural patterns.


Wood Incense
Wood incense is an herb, different from the previously mentioned wood incense. It was originally called honey incense due to its honey-like fragrance. Since agarwood varieties include honey incense, this was mistakenly referred to as wood incense. In the past, it was called green wood incense, but later, people began calling "Ma Ling Root" green wood incense and referred to this as "Southern Wood Incense" or "Broad Wood Incense" to differentiate them.

Green wood incense comes from India, and its root resembles licorice. The "Records of Southern Strange Objects" states that its fragrance comes from the root of a vine, which spirals to the left. After harvesting, it takes 29 days to harden like decayed bone. Those with a bluish cap on the rhizome are the true wood incense.

Five-fragrance incense is another name for green wood incense. A single plant has five roots, one stem, five branches, each branch with five leaves, and each leaf with five segments. This repeated pattern of fives gives it the name "five-fragrance incense." When burned, its fragrance is believed to reach the heavens.


Dreaming of Green Wood Incense to Cure Illness
Cui Wan'an, an official in Guangling, suffered from persistent dysentery. His family prayed at the Hou Tu Shrine, and that night, he dreamed of a woman adorned with pearl earrings and shoes, wearing five layers of clothing woven with pearl beads. She told him, "Your illness can be cured. Take equal parts of green wood incense and nutmeg, mix them with jujube paste, and form pills. Take 20 pills with rice water." She also warned, "This medicine is very warming. Stop taking it once the illness subsides." Following this advice, he recovered.


Storax (Suhexiang)
This incense originates from the Suhe region and is named accordingly. In Sanskrit, it is called "Durusikham." It is found in the valleys of Zhongtai Mountain. Today, it is imported from the Western Regions and Kunlun. The highest-quality storax is purplish-red, resembling purple sandalwood. It is solid, extremely fragrant, and as heavy as stone. When burned, the ashes turn white, indicating its high quality.

Although Guangzhou has storax, it resembles sappanwood and has no fragrance. Only storax with a high oil content is considered excellent.

In the Great Qin Kingdom (Rome or Persia), storax is first extracted by boiling its sap into fragrant balm. The residue is then sold to foreign traders, which is why the storax that reaches China is often of lower quality. Thus, storax sold in Guangzhou is likely to be processed remnants. Only storax in its balsamic form is genuine.

In Central India, storax is not a naturally occurring substance but is obtained by refining the sap of multiple aromatic plants. Storax oil is also produced in Annam, Srivijaya, and other foreign lands, where it is naturally secreted by trees. The pure, concentrated form without residue is the highest quality.

The Great Qin Kingdom, also called "Chetada," is located west of the sea and is sometimes referred to as "Yunhai." It spans thousands of miles and has over 400 people. Their customs resemble those of China, which is why it is called the Great Qin Kingdom. They blend fragrant substances into an aromatic paste, extract its essence to make storax oil, and use the residue to make storax incense.

Storax oil is also produced in the land of the Arabs. Its scent resembles "Dunu" and is of the highest grade when pure and residue-free. Foreigners often apply it to their bodies. In Fujian, people suffering from severe skin diseases also use it. It can be mixed with soft fragrant substances and used in medicine.

The storax available today is reddish and as hard as wood. There is also storax oil, which is viscous like glue and widely used. Liu Mengde records in the "Trusted Formulas" that storax has thin, golden-colored leaves that flatten when pressed and rise when released, as if moving like an insect. The most potent variety has the strongest aroma.

Although storax is from a single tree, there are differing theories. Some say it is like purple sandalwood, while others claim the sap forms storax balsam and storax oil. Others argue that storax is artificially produced by refining aromatic plant extracts. Some mistakenly believe it is like sappanwood, as heavy as stone. Others erroneously compare it to wild grapes, or even lion dung. These misconceptions have persisted, but the truth is that storax oil is originally white, while storax incense is naturally reddish-black. Liu Mengde also mentioned that its thin leaves resemble gold, which may refer to the tree’s leaves, or perhaps it is a rare variety from Panyu.


Imperial Gift of Storax Wine
Marshal Wang Wenzheng suffered from chronic illness. Emperor Zhenzong personally gifted him a bottle of medicinal wine and instructed him to drink it on an empty stomach to regulate his qi and blood and ward off external ailments. After drinking it, Wang Wenzheng felt significantly better and expressed his gratitude. The emperor explained, "This is storax wine. For every ten measures of wine, one liang (about 37 grams) of storax pills is boiled together. It is highly effective in harmonizing the five organs and alleviating abdominal ailments. If one suffers from stomach cold, a cup in the morning provides relief." The emperor then distributed bottles of storax wine to his close ministers. As a result, the use of storax pills became widespread among the people.


Purchasing Storax Incense
Ban Gu recorded that Imperial Attendant Dou was ordered to transport silk fabric for seven days to purchase storax and horses from the Yue people. Another record states that white silk fabric was traded for storax.


Gold and Silver Incense
Gold and silver incense do not originate from China. It resembles refined sugar handled by silversmiths, with a white waxy appearance. The best varieties contain more white, while inferior ones have less. When burned, it releases an exquisite fragrance. It is imported from Old Port.


South Pole Incense
A type of incense material.


Golden Fragrance
Golden fragrance is similar to benzoin. It is purplish-red like thick lacquer and bubbles when heated. It is not very fragrant and has a slightly sour scent. When combined with agarwood and sandalwood, it produces an elegant and clear aroma.

This incense is produced in the Arab lands and Cambodia. What is called "Sanfoqi Incense" (from Srivijaya) was originally traded from these two regions before being transported to China. The incense is derived from tree resin. The best variety is yellow and has a strong fragrance, which blends well with other scents. It is now commonly used in soft fragrant pastes and personal perfumes.

Cambodia produces Golden Fragrance in three colors: yellow, white, and black. The white variety is considered the best.


Tribute of Golden Fragrance
In the Yuan Dynasty, during the Zhiyuan reign, the Kingdom of Mabar (in South India) presented 1,000 pieces of golden fragrance as tribute. This resin was pale yellow or black, and the highest quality was snow-white.


Sulfur Incense
Sulfur incense resembles sulfur in appearance. A foreign record from the Wu Dynasty states that it originates from Dukkun, 3,000 miles south of Funan. It is found in coastal nations of the South China Sea. Today, the sulfur incense used in China comes from Western Rong lands.


Aseptic Incense (亞濕香)
Aseptic incense comes from the Kingdom of Champa. It is not a naturally occurring incense but is created by local people who mix ten different fragrant substances and pound them together. It is moist, black, and has a long-lasting, mild fragrance. When burned, it surpasses other types of incense.

Recently, some incense has arrived from Japan, which was gifted to me. It is said to be moist, black, and long-lasting, yet lacks the scent of agarwood, sandalwood, borneol, or musk. It may indeed be this type of incense.


Trembling Wind Incense (顫風香)
This is one of the finest incense varieties from Champa. It forms when the branches of incense trees intertwine and rub against each other over many years. The sap seeps out and solidifies into a fragrant resin. The best variety has oil seeping through its surface, making it glossier. Its aroma resembles that of honeyed incense. It is most suitable for scenting clothes, and its fragrance lingers for days.

In Jiangxi, along the Linjiang and Qingjiang routes, this incense is regarded as the finest and is always priced significantly higher than other varieties.


Jialan Incense (迦闌香)
Also known as Jialan Water, this incense originates from the Kingdom of Jialan. It is a type of Champa incense. Some claim it grows in the South Sea, near Mount Putuo. It is considered a precious incense, valued as highly as gold.


Tejia Incense (特遐香)
This incense comes from the lands west of Weak Water. It is shaped like a bird’s egg and has a pale white color. When burned, it repels evil spirits and wards off impurities, causing ghosts to flee.


Abosham Incense (阿勃參香)
This incense is produced in Fulim (possibly Persia). Its bark is bluish-white, and its leaves are small and grow in pairs. Its flowers are bright yellow and resemble vines. Its seeds are red and similar in size to peppercorns. When its resin is extracted and ground, it produces a strong fragrance. It is also used medicinally to treat leprosy.


Na Incense (納香)
According to the "Guangzhi," this incense grows in the Pirat Kingdom of the South Seas. The "Weilüe" states that it originates from the Great Qin (Rome or Persia). It is classified as a type of fragrant herb.


Lou Incense (婁香)
The "Records of Strange Objects" states that Lou incense originates from a coastal country. It is similar to Duliang incense and is used in incense blends. Its stem and leaves resemble water mint. However, this incense differs from the Lou incense known today.


Red Lou Incense (紅婁香)
This incense is also called Musk Sandalwood.


Aina Incense (艾納香)
This incense comes from the Western lands. It resembles fine mugwort. There is also a variant that grows on pine tree bark and is known as "Green Coating." It is used in incense blends, and when burned, its smoke remains concentrated and does not disperse.

Another account states that Aina incense originates from the Pirat Kingdom. When burned, its scent is intoxicating, and its smoke does not scatter, rising straight up.

The "Beihu Lu" records that its leaves resemble fan palm leaves but are smaller, and its seeds are similar to betel nuts and are edible. Some claim it is a parasitic plant that grows on pine trees.


Rosemary (迷迭香)
The "Guangzhi" states that it originates from the Western Regions. The "Weilüe" claims it comes from the Great Qin (Rome or Persia). It is worn as a personal fragrance and used to scent clothing. During Emperor Wei Wen’s reign, it was transplanted from the Western Regions into the imperial gardens. The emperor remarked, "I have planted rosemary in the courtyard, and I delight in its lush growth and fragrant blossoms."


Qieche Incense (藒車香)
The "Erya" dictionary defines Qieche as a fragrant herb. It grows in the mountains and valleys of Hainan and Pengcheng. It grows several feet tall, has yellow leaves, and white flowers. The "Chu Ci" (Songs of Chu) mentions "Qieche and Liuli," indicating that this herb was commonly cultivated in ancient times and resembles orchids and zerling herbs.

The "Essential Techniques for the Common People" states that boiling this incense and pouring the cooled liquid onto insect-infested wood will drive away the pests.


Duliang Incense (都梁香)
Duliang incense is also known as orchid grass, Jian grass, water incense, fragrant water orchid, female orchid, fragrant grass, swallow-tail incense, great marsh orchid, marsh orchid grass, distilled marsh grass, sparrow-head grass, child’s chrysanthemum, and thousand-gold grass.

The Duliang County mountain has clear, shallow water at its base, where orchids grow abundantly, giving the incense its name.

According to "Sheng Hongzhi’s Records of Jingzhou," orchids resemble marsh orchids with broad, long leaves. They grow four to five feet tall, with reddish segments. During the Han Dynasty, they were cultivated in pools and palace gardens, including the Xuchang Palace. The flowers were powdered and used to scent clothing. This incense is the modern Duliang incense.

"Duliang incense is orchid grass," states the "Compendium of Materia Medica," which references various sources. Ancient people used orchids for fragrance and decoration. True orchids are distinct from marsh orchids. The leaves of orchid grass are smooth and purple at the roots. When dried in summer, they become Duliang incense.


Lingling Incense (零陵香)
Lingling incense is a fragrant herb with hemp-like leaves, square stems, red flowers, and black seeds. It has a strong aroma and is used to ward off plagues.

The "Classic of Mountains and Seas" describes the Kingdom of Gentlemen in the East, where fragrant herbs grow continuously.

Lingling incense is also called fragrant grass, fenugreek grass, swallow grass, and yellow ling grass. It grows in the mountains of Lingling and in humid lowlands. It blooms in mid-July and has been famous since ancient times. Some sources claim it is the same as fenugreek grass. Others differentiate between the plant’s stems and leaves (called fenugreek) and its roots (called Lingling). The best incense is harvested in March, and segments that have detached naturally are the finest.

In Lingnan, incense is processed by roasting it in charcoal kilns until it turns yellow. Jianghuai also produces a local version, but its fragrance is not as strong as the Lingnan variety.

In ancient times, fragrant herbs were burned to summon spirits. The term "fenugreek" refers to the process of burning incense. The "Book of Han" mentions "burning fragrant herbs to invoke deities." Some believe that ancient purification rituals involved using this herb.

The "Records of Imperial Tribute" states that Lingling is now known as Yongzhou, but it no longer produces this incense. However, the areas of Rong, Yi, and other regions still have it in abundance. Local people weave mats from it, which are warm and comforting.

Lingling incense grows abundantly in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. The dried roots, when burned, release an extremely pleasant fragrance and are often used in perfumes and hair oils.

Lingling Incense in Jiangxiang
In the Jiangxiang region, the fragrance of Lingling incense can be smelled from ten paces away.


Fragrant Incense (芳香)
Fragrant incense is also known as Angelica Root (Bai Zhi). Xu Shen stated that in Jin it was called Xiao, in Qi it was called Chi, and in Chu it was called Li. It was also referred to as Yao or Guan, with leaves resembling Artemisia (hao) and growing in wetlands. Due to its fragrance being similar to orchids, ancient poets often mentioned orchids and Chi together. In traditional texts, fragrant incense is described as Bai Zhi.

Xu Kai mentioned that when the root first forms, it is called Zhi, meaning that the name Bai Zhi (white root) comes from this origin. Wang Anshi noted that Chi fragrance nourishes both the nose and body, which is why the character for Chi (茞) includes the radical for "minister" (臣), symbolizing nourishment and care.

Tao Hongjing recorded that it grows abundantly in the southeast and that its leaves can be used in incense blends. Daoists use this fragrance for ritual baths to cleanse impurities.

Su Song stated that it grows everywhere, particularly in the Wu region. The root can grow over a foot long, with varying thickness. It is white and has a main stem that rises about five inches above the ground. In spring, its leaves emerge in pairs and have a purple hue, about three fingers wide. The flowers are white with a slight yellow tinge, and the plant produces seeds after midsummer. It is best harvested in August and dried in the sun, with yellow-hued roots being the highest quality.


Spider Incense (蜘蛛香)
This incense is found in the western parts of Sichuan, in Maozhou and Songpan Mountains. It comes from a type of herbaceous root that is black with thick fibers, resembling a spider’s legs, hence its name. It has a strong fragrance and is highly valued in those regions.


Gan Song Incense (甘松香)
The Golden Light Sutra refers to it as Kumida Incense. It originates from the mountains of Guzang and Liangzhou. It has fine leaves that grow in clusters and is often blended with other incenses or used to scent clothing. It is also found in Guizhou, Sichuan, and Shaanxi. It grows wild in mountain regions, with thin leaves resembling rush grass. The roots are dense and fibrous. It is traditionally used in August for making herbal baths that leave a lingering fragrance on the body.

Gan Song incense has a sweet scent and helps relieve digestive issues. It is produced in western Sichuan, particularly in Songzhou. Because of its sweet aroma, it is named Gan Song (Sweet Pine).


Patchouli (藿香)
The Lotus Sutra refers to it as Tamaluoba Incense, the Shurangama Sutra calls it Douloupo Incense, the Golden Light Sutra calls it Botala Incense, and the Nirvana Sutra refers to it as Jiasuan Incense.

Patchouli is found in the coastal Liao Kingdom, resembling Duliang Incense (兰草). It can be worn in clothing.

In Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, Wuping, and Xinguo, people cultivate it themselves. It grows naturally and is harvested from May to June, dried in the sun, and then used for its fragrance.

The Records of Foreign Lands from the Wu Dynasty mention that Dukun, located 3,000 miles south of Funan, produces patchouli.

Liu Xinqi noted that its scent is similar to storax, which is why people compare them.

In the Kingdom of Dunxun, patchouli branches sprout easily when planted. The leaves resemble Duliang Incense. It is widely used to scent clothing, and the country produces large quantities for trade. The dried flowers are especially fragrant and are often ground into powder for perfuming the body.


Rue (蕓香)
The Shuowen Jiezi dictionary states that Yunxiang is a fragrant herb similar to alfalfa. The Erya dictionary records that it sprouts in mid-spring. In the Book of Rites, it is noted that its leaves resemble wormwood (ai). It is also called Yunhao, and its fragrance is sweet and edible. The Huainanzi states that even after withering, it can regrow. If stored with clothing or books, it repels moths.

Laozi once wrote, "Yunyun returns to its roots," signifying its abundant and regenerative nature.

Shen Kuo noted that rue is similar to sweet peas. It grows in clusters, and its leaves are extremely fragrant. In autumn, its leaves turn white with a powdery coating.

Zheng Xuan stated that rue was widely cultivated and often planted in courtyards.


Palace Cultivation of Rue
The Han Dynasty Archives state that rue was cultivated in the Orchid Terrace and the Stone Chamber Library, where books were stored.

According to the Records of the Luo Yang Palaces, a single rue tree was planted in front of Xianyang Hall, two in front of Huiyin Hall, and two in front of Hanying Hall.

The Jin Dynasty Palace Records mention four plots of rue in front of Taiji Hall and eight plots in front of Shiqian Hall.


The Rue Chamber
In Chen Zi’ang’s Collected Works, it is recorded that the scholar Zu Qinen was assigned as a junior secretary and eventually entered the Rue Chamber.


Rue’s Ability to Repel Lice
The Supplementary Records of Strange Things note that placing rue leaves under a mat can repel fleas and lice.


Is Rue a Tree or an Herb?
Some records describe single rue trees growing in front of palace halls, while others mention fields of rue, suggesting it is an herb. Both tree and herb varieties may exist.

Today, rue is classified with fragrant medicinal resins like benzoin and frankincense, meaning it is extracted from plants rather than burned as whole leaves.


Huai Fragrance (櫰香)
Huai fragrance, also known as Durheng Incense, grows in valleys. It has leaves shaped like hollyhock and resembles a horse’s hoof, hence its nickname Horse Hoof Incense. It is rarely used in medicine, but Daoists believe wearing it enhances one’s aura. Ji Kang and Bian Jing both wrote poems praising this fragrance.


Agarwood Mushroom (香茸)
Tingzhou is known for its fragrant Agarwood Mushroom, also called Fragrant Yau by the Fujianese.

A guest once asked, "Is this truly fragrant?" Another replied, "The Zuo Zhuan states that a single exposure to fragrance lasts ten years, while the Han Book says incense is burned for its aroma. But Zuo Zhuan contrasts fragrance with foul odor, suggesting not all plants used in incense are naturally fragrant."

Modern physicians use Agarwood Mushroom to treat ailments. Its scent is pungent, and it is commonly found in Jianghuai. Fujianese people mistakenly call it Fragrant Yau, but it is actually an aromatic herb used in medicine.


Mao Incense (茅香)
Mao incense is a fragrant grass. Its flowers, stems, and leaves can be boiled into a bath to ward off evil spirits and leave a pleasant fragrance on the body. It grows in various regions of Jian'nan and other provinces. Its stems and leaves are dark brown, and its flowers are white, distinguishing it from White Mao Incense. Its roots resemble normal grass roots but are more lustrous and elongated. It is commonly used in incense blends and is an essential ingredient in pressed incense tablets.

There are two main types of Mao incense: one is regular Xiang Mao (fragrant Mao grass), while the other is White Mao Incense, a fragrant herb from the southern islands.


Throwing Mao Incense Southward (香茅南擲)
The Daoist priest Shen Mu took a root of Mao incense and threw it southward. He said to the immortal Xu Zhenjun, "Wherever this Mao grass lands, build my shrine."


White Mao Incense (白茅香)
White Mao Incense grows in the valleys of Guangnan and Annam. It resembles Mao grass in its root structure and is similar to a modern variety called Pai Cao (排草). It differs from the contemporary White Mao and northern varieties of Mao incense. Daoists use it in ritual baths, and it is considered one of the most remarkable aromatic herbs, superior even to imported incense.


Pai Grass Incense (排草香)
Pai grass incense is native to Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam), though it is also cultivated in Lingnan. It has white roots that resemble fine willow roots. Some merchants mix it with other fragrant herbs to imitate its aroma.

The Records of the Huai Sea describe Pai grass incense as similar to White Mao Incense but with a musk-like intensity. It is considered the finest among incense ingredients.


Ping Incense (瓶香)
This incense grows in the mountains and valleys of the South China Sea. It is a type of fragrant grass.


Geng Incense (耕香)
Geng incense has slender stems and small leaves. It originates from the Kingdom of Wuhu.


Mao Incense, White Mao Incense, Pai Grass Incense, Ping Incense, and Geng Incense
These five types of incense belong to the same category of fragrant grasses.


Sparrow-Head Incense (雀頭香)
Sparrow-head incense is actually a form of Cyperus (Xiang Fu Zi). Its leaves and stems grow in triangular formations, and its roots are covered with fine hairs. It thrives in moist, low-lying areas, which is why it is also called Water Cyperus or Water Bajitian. The variety found in Jiaozhi (Vietnam) is the finest, with roots as large as date seeds. Those grown in the central provinces are smaller, resembling apricot kernels. People from Jingzhou and Xiangzhou call it Shu Cao Gen (Cyperus root), and it is widely used in incense blends.


Xuantai Incense (玄台香)
According to Tao Hongjing, this incense is found in nearby regions. Its roots are black and aromatic. Daoists use it in incense blends.


Lychee Incense (荔枝香)
This incense is made from lychee shells, which, when mixed into incense blends, produce a refreshing and elegant fragrance.


Child’s Incense (孩兒香)
Also known as Child’s Earth or Child’s Clay, this incense originates from the Uda Kingdom. The soil beneath their rosewood trees is naturally fragrant. The locals call it Hai, but over time, this name was mistakenly changed to Hai Er (Child’s Incense). It is believed that when roses bloom, their essence seeps into the soil, forming clumps that resemble water caltrop seeds. The highest quality is said to come from these natural deposits.


Primary Incense (本香)
In ancient times, this was the fundamental incense used in blends, hence its name.